名词解释：世界贸易组织

1. 名词解释：世界贸易组织

1994年4月15日在摩洛哥的马拉喀什市举行的关贸总协定乌拉圭回合部长会议决定成立更具全球性的世界贸易组织（简称“世贸组织”，World Trade Organization -- WTO） ，以取代成立于1947年的关贸总协定（GATT）。 

  世贸组织是一个独立于联合国的永久性国际组织。1995年1月1日正式开始运作，负责管理世界经济和贸易秩序，总部设在瑞士日内瓦莱蒙湖畔。1996年1月1日，它正式取代关贸总协定临时机构。世贸组织是具有法人地位的国际组织，在调解成员争端方面具有更高的权威性。它的前身是1947年订立的关税及贸易总协定。与关贸总协定相比，世贸组织涵盖货物贸易、服务贸易以及知识产权贸易，而关贸总协定只适用于商品货物贸易。

  世贸组织成员分四类：发达成员、发展中成员、转轨经济体成员和最不发达成员。2005年12月，世贸组织总理事会在香港正式批准太平洋岛国汤加加入，其正式成员身份于一个月后生效。这样，世贸组织正式成员将增加到150个。 

  世界贸易组织总部设在瑞士日内瓦。世贸组织的第一任总干事是意大利前外贸部长雷纳托·鲁杰罗，第二任总干事是新西兰前总理麦克·穆尔，第三任总干事是泰国前副总理兼商业部长素帕猜，第四任总干事是欧盟前贸易谈判代表帕斯卡尔·拉米。

  建立世贸组织的设想是在1944年7月举行的布雷顿森林会议上提出的，当时设想在成立世界银行和国际货币基金组织的同时，成立一个国际性贸易组织，从而使它们成为二次大战后左右世界经济的“货币－金融－贸易”三位一体的机构。1947年联合国贸易及就业会议签署的《哈瓦那宪章》同意成立世贸组织，后来由于美国的反对，世贸组织未能成立。同年，美国发起拟订了关贸总协定，作为推行贸易自由化的临时契约。1986年关贸总协定乌拉圭回合谈判启动后，欧共体和加拿大于1990年分别正式提出成立世贸组织的议案，1994年4月在摩洛哥马拉喀什举行的关贸总协定部长级会议才正式决定成立世贸组织。 

  1947--1993年，关贸总协定主持了8轮多边关税与贸易谈判，第8轮谈判于1986年至1993年12月15日在日内瓦举行，称为“乌拉圭回合”。其中第五轮称为“狄龙回合”，第六轮称为“肯尼迪回合”，第七轮称为“东京回合”。世贸组织与国际货币基金组织（IMF）、世界银行（WB）一起被称为世界经济发展的三大支柱。

  2003年8月30日，世贸组织总理事会一致通过了关于实施专利药品强制许可制度的最后文件。根据这份文件的规定，发展中成员和最不发达成员因艾滋病、疟疾、肺结核及其它流行疾病而发生公共健康危机时，可在未经专利权人许可的情况下，在其内部通过实施专利强制许可制度，生产、使用和销售有关治疗导致公共健康危机疾病的专利药品。这不仅将大大降低相关专利药品的市场价格，而且将有利于更迅速和有效地控制、缓解公共健康危机，确保生命健康基本权利得到尊重和保护。 

  同年12月13日至18日，世贸组织第六次部长级会议在中国香港举行，会议通过了《部长宣言》，规定发达成员和部分发展中成员2008年前向最不发达国家所有产品提供免关税、免配额的市场准入；发达成员2006年取消棉花的出口补贴，2013年年底前取消所有形式农产品出口补贴。 



主要职能、宗旨、目标、基本原则、基本职能


  世贸组织的主要职能是：组织实施各项贸易协定；为个成员提供多边贸易谈判场所，并为多边谈判结果提供框架；解决成员间发生的贸易争端；对个成员的贸易政策与法规进行定期审议；协调与国际货币基金组织、世界银行的关系。

  世贸组织的宗旨是：提高生活水平，保证充分就业和大幅度、稳步提高实际收入和有效需求；扩大货物和服务的生产与贸易；坚持走可持续发展之路，个成员方应促进对世界资源的最优利用、保护和维护环境，并以符合不同经济发展水平下各成员需要的方式，加强采取各种相应的措施；积极努力确保发展中国家，尤其是最不发达国家在国际贸易增长中获得与其经济发展水平相适应的份额和利益。

  世界贸易组织的目标是建立一个完整的，包括货物、服务、与贸易有关的投资及知识产权等内容的，更具活力、更持久的多边贸易体系，使之可以包括关贸总协定贸易自由化的成果和乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判的所有成果。

  世界贸易组织的基本原则是非歧视贸易原则，包括最惠国待遇和国民待遇条款；可预见的和不断扩大的市场准入程度，主要是对关税的规定；促进公平竞争，致力于建立开放、公平、无扭曲竞争的“自由贸易”环境和规则；鼓励发展与经济改革。

  世贸组织的基本职能有：管理和执行共同构成世贸组织的多边及诸边贸易协定；作为多边贸易谈判的讲坛；寻求解决贸易争端；监督各成员贸易政策，并与其它同制订全球经济政策有关的国际机构进行合作。世贸组织的目标是建立一个完整的、更具有活力的和永久性的多边贸易体制。与关贸总协定相比，世贸组织管辖的范围除传统的和乌拉圭回合确定的货物贸易外，还包括长期游离于关贸总协定外的知识产权、投资措施和非货物贸易（服务贸易）等领域。世贸组织具有法人地位，它在调解成员争端方面具有更高的权威性和有效性。 
http://baike.baidu.com/view/3929.htm

2. 求关于IMF的英文资料介绍.

综述：
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that oversees the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in particular those with an impact on exchange rates and the balance of payments. It is an organization formed with a stated objective of stabilizing international exchange rates and facilitating development.It also offers highly leveraged loans mainly to poorer countries. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., United States.





Organization and purpose：

The International Monetary Fund was created in July 1944, originally with 45 members,[3] with a goal to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world's international payment system. Countries contributed to a pool which could be borrowed from, on a temporary basis, by countries with payment imbalances. (Condon, 2007)

The IMF describes itself as "an organization of 186 countries (Kosovo being the 186th, as of June 29, 2009),[4][5] working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty". With the exception of Taiwan (expelled in 1980),[6] North Korea, Cuba (left in 1964),[7] Andorra, Monaco, Liechtenstein, Tuvalu and Nauru, all UN member states participate directly in the IMF. Most are represented by other member states on a 24-member Executive Board but all member countries belong to the IMF's Board of Governors.[8]

[edit] History
The International Monetary Fund was formally created in July 1944 during the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The representatives of 44 governments met in the Mount Washington Hotel in the area of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States of America, with the delegates to the conference agreeing on a framework for international economic cooperation.[9] The IMF was formally organised on December 27, 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement. The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1943 (see #Assistance and reforms).

[edit] Today
The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the collapse of the Soviet bloc. The expansion of the IMF's membership, together with the changes in the world economy, have required the IMF to adapt in a variety of ways to continue serving its purposes effectively.

In 2008, faced with a shortfall in revenue, the International Monetary Fund's executive board agreed to sell part of the IMF's gold reserves. On April 27, 2008, IMF Managing Director Dominique Strauss-Kahn welcomed the board's decision April 7, 2008 to propose a new framework for the fund, designed to close a projected $400 million budget deficit over the next few years. The budget proposal includes sharp spending cuts of $100 million until 2011 that will include up to 380 staff dismissals.[10]

At the 2009 G-20 London summit, it was decided that the IMF would require additional financial resources to meet prospective needs of its member countries during the ongoing global crisis. As part of that decision, the G-20 leaders pledged to increase the IMF's supplemental cash tenfold to $500 billion, and to allocate to member countries another $250 billion via Special Drawing Rights.















Data dissemination systems
 
IMF Data Dissemination Systems participants: 
     IMF member using SDDS
 
     IMF member, using GDDS
 
     IMF member, not using any of the DDSystems
 
     non-IMF entity using SDDS
 
     non-IMF entity using GDDS
 
     no interaction with the IMFIn 1995, the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) endorsed the guidelines for the dissemination standards and they were split into two tiers: The General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and the Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS).

The International Monetary Fund executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively and subsequent amendments were published in a revised “Guide to the General Data Dissemination System”. The system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals and Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers.

The IMF established a system and standard to guide members in the dissemination to the public of their economic and financial data. Currently there are two such systems: General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and its superset Special Data Dissemination System (SDDS), for those member countries having or seeking access to international capital markets.

The primary objective of the GDDS is to encourage IMF member countries to build a framework to improve data quality and increase statistical capacity building. This will involve the preparation of metadata describing current statistical collection practices and setting improvement plans. Upon building a framework, a country can evaluate statistical needs, set priorities in improving the timeliness, transparency, reliability and accessibility of financial and economic data.

Some countries initially used the GDDS, but lately upgraded to SDDS.

Some entities that are not themselves IMF members also contribute statistical data to the systems:

 Palestinian Authority – GDDS 
 Hong Kong – SDDS 
 European Union institutions: 
the European Central Bank for the Eurozone – SDDS 
Eurostat for the whole EU – SDDS, thus providing data from  Cyprus (not using any DDSystem on its own) and  Malta (using only GDDS on its own) 
[edit] Membership qualifications
Any country may apply for membership to the IMF. The application will be considered first by the IMF's Executive Board. After its consideration, the Executive Board will submit a report to the Board of Governors of the IMF with recommendations in the form of a "Membership Resolution." These recommendations cover the amount of quota in the IMF, the form of payment of the subscription, and other customary terms and conditions of membership. After the Board of Governors has adopted the "Membership Resolution," the applicant state needs to take the legal steps required under its own law to enable it to sign the IMF's Articles of Agreement and to fulfil the obligations of IMF membership. Similarly, any member country can withdraw from the Fund, although that is rare. For example, in April 2007, the president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa announced the expulsion of the World Bank representative in the country. A few days later, at the end of April, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez announced that the country would withdraw from the IMF and the World Bank. Chavez dubbed both organisations as “the tools of the empire” that “serve the interests of the North”. [1] As of June 2009, both countries remain as members of both organisations. Venezuela was forced to back down because a withdrawal would have triggered default clauses in the country's sovereign bonds.

A member's quota in the IMF determines the amount of its subscription, its voting weight, its access to IMF financing, and its allocation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). The United States has exclusive veto power. A member state cannot unilaterally increase its quota—increases must be approved by the Executive Board and are linked to formulas that include many variables such as the size of a country in the world economy. For example, in 2001, China was prevented from increasing its quota as high as it wished, ensuring it remained at the level of the smallest G7 economy (Canada).[13] In September 2005, the IMF's member countries agreed to the first round of ad hoc quota increases for four countries, including China. On March 28, 2008, the IMF's Executive Board ended a period of extensive discussion and negotiation over a major package of reforms to enhance the institution's governance that would shift quota and voting shares from advanced to emerging markets and developing countries. The Fund's Board of Governors must vote on these reforms by April 28, 2008.

















Assistance and reforms
Main articles: Washington consensus and Structural adjustment program
The primary mission of the IMF is to provide financial assistance to countries that experience serious financial and economic difficulties using funds deposited with the IMF from the institution's 186 member countries. Member states with balance of payments problems, which often arise from these difficulties, may request loans to help fill gaps between what countries earn and/or are able to borrow from other official lenders and what countries must spend to operate, including to cover the cost of importing basic goods and services. In return, countries are usually required to launch certain reforms, which have often been dubbed the "Washington Consensus". These reforms are thought to be beneficial to countries with fixed exchange rate policies that may engage in fiscal, monetary, and political practices which may lead to the crisis itself. For example, nations with severe budget deficits, rampant inflation, strict price controls, or significantly over-valued or under-valued currencies run the risk of facing balance of payment crises. Thus, the structural adjustment programs are at least ostensibly intended to ensure that the IMF is actually helping to prevent financial crises rather than merely funding financial recklessness.

[edit] IMF/World Bank support of military dictatorships
The role of the Bretton Woods institutions has been controversial since the late Cold War period, as the IMF policy makers supported military dictatorships friendly to American and European corporations. Critics also claim that the IMF is generally apathetic or hostile to their views of democracy, human rights, and labor rights. The controversy has helped spark the Anti-globalization movement. Arguments in favor of the IMF say that economic stability is a precursor to democracy; however, critics highlight various examples in which democratized countries fell after receiving IMF loans.[16]

In the 1960s, the IMF and the World Bank supported the government of Brazil’s military dictator Castello Branco with tens of millions of dollars of loans and credit that were denied to previous democratically-elected governments.[17]

Countries that were or are under a Military dictatorship whilst being members of the IMF/World Bank (support from various sources in $ Billion












Criticism
"The interests of the IMF represent the big international interests that seem to be established and concentrated in Wall Street."

— Che Guevara, Marxist revolutionary, 1959[19]
Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to so-called "Conditionalities", including Structural Adjustment Programs. It is claimed that conditionalities (economic performance targets established as a precondition for IMF loans) retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries.[20]

One of the main SAP conditions placed on troubled countries is that the governments sell up as much of their national assets as they can, normally to western corporations at heavily discounted prices.

That said, the IMF sometimes advocates "austerity programmes," increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, in order to generate government revenue and balance budget deficits, which is Keynesian policy. Countries are often advised to lower their corporate tax rate. These policies were criticised by Joseph E. Stiglitz, former chief economist and Senior Vice President at the World Bank, in his book Globalization and Its Discontents.[21] He argued that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the fund no longer had a valid purpose, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations, and that the IMF "was not participating in a conspiracy, but it was reflecting the interests and ideology of the Western financial community".[22]

Argentina, which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in 2001, which some believe to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions — which undercut the government's ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security — and privatization of strategically vital national resources.[23] Others attribute the crisis to Argentina's misdesigned fiscal federalism, which caused subnational spending to increase rapidly.[24] The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region's economic problems.[25] The current — as of early 2006 — trend towards moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis.

Another example of where IMF Structural Adjustment Programmes aggravated the problem was in Kenya. Before the IMF got involved in the country, the Kenyan central bank oversaw all currency movements in and out of the country. The IMF mandated that the Kenyan central bank had to allow easier currency movement. However, the adjustment resulted in very little foreign investment, but allowed Kamlesh Manusuklal Damji Pattni, with the help of corrupt government officials, to siphon off billions of Kenyan shillings in what came to be known as the Goldenberg scandal, leaving the country worse off than it was before the IMF reforms were implemented.[citation needed] In an interview, the former Romanian Prime Minister Tăriceanu stated that "Since 2005, IMF is constantly making mistakes when it appreciates the country's economic performances".[26]

In September 2007 the IMF said "given the Irish economy's strong fundamentals and the authorities' commitment to sound policies, the Directors expected economic growth to remain robust over the medium term".[27] Seventeen months later in April 2009, the New York Times quoted a Nobel prize-winning economist, who identified Ireland as a model for the worst-case scenario for the global economy.[28]

Overall the IMF success record is perceived as limited.[citation needed] While it was created to help stabilize the global economy, since 1980 critics claim over 100 countries (or reputedly most of the Fund's membership) have experienced a banking collapse that they claim have reduced GDP by four percent or more, far more than at any time in Post-Depression history.[citation needed] The considerable delay in the IMF's response to any crisis, and the fact that it tends to only respond to them or even create them[29] rather than prevent them, has led many economists to argue for reform. In 2006, an IMF reform agenda called the Medium Term Strategy was widely endorsed by the institution's member countries. The agenda includes changes in IMF governance to enhance the role of developing countries in the institution's decision-making process and steps to deepen the effectiveness of its core mandate, which is known as economic surveillance or helping member countries adopt macroeconomic policies that will sustain global growth and reduce poverty. On June 15, 2007, the Executive Board of the IMF adopted the 2007 Decision on Bilateral Surveillance, a landmark measure that replaced a 30-year-old decision of the Fund's member countries on how the IMF should analyse economic outcomes at the country level.

 Impact on public health
In 2008, a study by analysts from Cambridge and Yale universities published on the open-access Public Library of Science concluded that strict conditions on the international loans by the IMF resulted in thousands of deaths in Eastern Europe by tuberculosis as public health care had to be weakened. In the 21 countries which the IMF had given loans, tuberculosis deaths rose by 16.6 %.

Criticism from free-market advocates
Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a monetarist approach. As such, adherents of supply-side economics generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF. The IMF frequently advocates currency devaluation, criticized by proponents of supply-side economics as inflationary. Secondly they link higher taxes under "austerity programmes" with economic contraction.

Complaints are also directed toward International Monetary Fund gold reserve being undervalued. At its inception in 1945, the IMF pegged gold at US$35 per Troy ounce of gold. In 1973 the Nixon administration lifted the fixed asset value of gold in favor of a world market price. Hence the fixed exchange rates of currencies tied to gold were switched to a floating rate, also based on market price and exchange. This largely came about because Petrodollars outside the United States were more than could be backed by the gold at Fort Knox under the fixed exchange rate system. The fixed rate system only served to limit the amount of assistance the organisation could use to help debt-ridden countries. Current IMF rules prohibit members from linking their currencies to gold.[citation needed]

[edit] Attempts to repair image
Research by the Pew Research Center shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that the IMF and the World Bank have a positive effect on their country. However it is pertinent to note that the survey aggregated international organisations including the World Trade Organisation. Also, a similar percentage of people in the Western world believed that these international organisations had a positive effect on their countries. In 2005, the IMF was the first multilateral financial institution to implement a sweeping debt-relief program for the world's poorest countries known as the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative. By year-end 2006, 23 countries mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Central America had received total relief of debts owed to the IMF.

 Managing Director
Historically the IMF's managing director has been European and the president of the World Bank has been from the United States. However, this standard is increasingly being questioned and competition for these two posts may soon open up to include other qualified candidates from any part of the world. Executive Directors, who confirm the managing director, are voted in by Finance Ministers from countries they represent. The First Deputy Managing Director of the IMF, the second-in-command, has traditionally been (and is today) an American. 





没写下，还有这个：http://www.imfsite.org/finprograms/oando.html

3. 名词解释：外汇与汇率。

外汇是国际贸易的产物，是国际贸易清偿的支付手段。外汇（ForeignExchange）即国外汇兑，“汇”是货币异地转移，“兑”是货币之间进行转换，从动态上讲，外汇就是把一国货币转换成另一国货币，并在国际间流通用以清算因国际经济往来而产生的债权债务。从静态上讲外汇又表现为进行国际清算的手段和工具，如外国货币，以外币计价的各种证券。

国际货币基金组织（IMF）给外汇的定义是：“外汇是货币行政当局（中央银行、货币管理机构、外汇平准基金及财政部）以银行存款、财政部库券、长短期政府债券等形式所保有的在国际收支逆差时可以使用的债权。其中包括由中央银行及政府间协议而发生的在市场上不流通的债券，而不问它是以债务国货币还是以债权国货币表示。”根据IMF的定义，我国对外汇作了更为明确的规定。

《中华人民共和国外汇管理暂行条例》第二条对外汇规定如下：

外汇是指1.外国货币，包括钞票、铸币等；

2.外币有价证券，包括政府公债、国库券、公司债券、股票、息票等；

3.外币支付凭证，包括票据，银行存款凭证，邮电储蓄凭证；

4.其它外汇资金。

从形式上看，外汇是某种外国货币或外币资产，但不能认为所有的非本国货币都是外汇，只是那些具有可兑换性的外国货币才能成为外汇。

凡是接受IMF协定第八条规定的国家的货币在国际上被承认为可自由兑换货币。这些国家必须履行三条法规：

1.对国际经常往来的付款和资金转移不得施加限制；

2.不施行歧视性货币措施或多种货币汇率；

3.在另一成员国要求下，随时有义务换回对方在经常往来中所结存的本国货币。

迄今为止，全世界已有50多个国家的货币可自由兑换。此外，凡是接受IMF协定第十四条规定的国家，其货币被视作有限度自由兑换货币，这些货币的共同特征表现为对国际经常往来的付款和资金转移施加各种限制。如限制居民的自由兑换或限制资本项目外汇的兑换。我国的人民币属于有限度自由兑换货币。

在我国，有20余种外币可以在外汇市场上挂牌买卖，它们是：美元（USD）、德国马克（DEM）、欧元（EUR）、日元（JPY）、英镑（GBP）、瑞士法郎（CHF）、法国法郎（FRF）、意大利里拉（ITL）、荷兰盾（NLG）、比利时法郎（BEC）、丹麦克郎（DKK）、瑞典克郎（SEK）、奥地利先令（ATS）、港元（HKD）、加拿大元（CAD）、澳大利亚元（AUD）、新西兰元（NZD）、新加坡元（SIN）、澳门元（MOP）、马来西亚林吉特（MYR）等。

4. IMF国际组织的简称是什么

IMF：维护国际金融稳定的世界组织

5. flammable和imflamble的区别

区别是：
flammable指的是易燃的，可燃的。
inflammable除了有易燃的意思还表示易激动的，易激怒的。

例句辨析：
flammable
1、Do not use tool in presence of flammable liquids or gases. 
不要在有可燃液体和气体的场合使用。
2、Ambient air temperature and humidity may also have an effect on the flammable limits. 

周围环境的空气温度和湿度也对可燃极限有影响。
3、A flammable hydrocarbon oil used as fuel in lamps and heaters. 

一种易燃的烃类油，用作灯和加热器的燃料。
4、A flammable colorless gaseous alkene; obtained from petroleum and natural gas and used in manufacturing many other chemicals. 

一种无色易燃的气态烯烃，从石油和天然气中提取，用于制造其他许多化学品。

inflammable
1、'Highly inflammable,' it says on the spare canister.
备用罐上写着“高度易燃”。
2、Benzine is highly inflammable. 

汽油高度易燃。
3、This paper discussed the sixth part inflammable and explosive gas and hazardouschemical materials safety management. 
本文第六部分探讨易燃易爆气体和危险化学品的安全管理。
4、Acetone is a highly inflammable, irritating and combustible fluid. 

丙酮是一种极易燃烧且具有刺激性的易燃液体。

6. 名词解释：铸币税

　　铸币税（Seigniorage），也称为“货币税”。指发行货币的组织或国家，在发行货币并吸纳等值黄金等财富后，货币贬值，使持币方财富减少，发行方财富增加的经济现象。
　　简单地讲就是发行货币的收益。一张100美元的钞票印刷成本也许只有一美元，但是却能购买100美元的商品，其中的99美元差价就是铸币税，是政府财政的重要来源。使用别国的货币，就是主动放弃了大量的财富。
　　金币之类的足值货币，包含着价值上同硬币面值大致相当的金属。在金本位制下，黄金可以随意送到造币厂铸成金币，只需为这一特权支付少量铸币税。相比之下，辅币和纸币的成本则比它们的面值要小得多。通货的币面价值超出生产成本的部分也被称作铸币税，因为它在早先时候属于发行的封建领主或统治者。
　　现代政府使用纸币以取代足值硬币，产生资源使用方面的巨大节约，否则将大大增加金属的开采与熔炼。这种铸币税的价值可通过把货币的总需求量曲线当作利息率的函数来衡量。在这个需求曲线以下的范围代表在某些假设下因拥有通货而获得的总的社会利益。持有通货的社会成本则用该通货所含资产的机会成本来衡量。如果黄金被用为通货，把它们移作其他用途时，其机会成本则将用所可以获得的利率来计算。因此，在需求曲线以下介于市场利率和供给纸币的成本之间的范围，可表示铸币税或用纸币代替黄金所增加的社会节约。
　　在国际货币体系中，黄金仍然在国际储备中占有很大部分，目前约占总储备的1／3。使用国际货币基金组织（IMF）建立的特别提款权（Special Drawing Rights）或美元之间的信用资产采取代黄金，将会产生以铸币税形式出现的大量社会利益，其数量等于资产的机会成本减去为提供该信用资产所花成本的部分，包括向储备财产持有者支付的利息。
　　正是这些巨额铸币税收益的存在，导致了金汇兑本位制的发展，在这种本位制下第二次世界大战前是英镑，战后是美元和其他货币在国际储备中取代了黄金。假如向美元的财产持有者支付低于市场利率的利息，铸币税将被发行者和持有者瓜分。
　　人们经常建议在国际货币体系中进一步以信用储备资产取代黄金。1978年通过的国际货币基金组织章程第二修正本就提出了这样的目标。但是，在这方面至今少有进展，因为根本问题在于人们对发行者的财政殷实程度和持续的政治稳定性是否信任，以及他们是否始终愿意长期将储备资产兑换成可使用的通货。在国家货币体系中，名义货币的使用给中央货币局带来了铸币收益税，可被中央政府挪用作为收入来源。如凯恩斯（Keynes）所说，“在别无他法时，一个政府可以通过这种方式生存下去”（凯恩斯，1924年）。

7. 通俗易懂的IMF特别提款权的解释是什么啊

特别提款权（本义）：国际货币基金组织创设的一种储备资产和记账单位，亦称“纸黄金（Paper Gold）”。它是基金组织分配给会员国的一种使用资金的权利。会员国在发生国际收支逆差时，可用它向基金组织指定的其他会员国换取外汇，以偿付国际收支逆差或偿还基金组织的贷款，还可与黄金、自由兑换货币一样充当国际储备。但由于其只是一种记帐单位，不是真正货币，使用时必须先换成其他货币，不能直接用于贸易或非贸易的支付。因为它是国际货币基金组织原有的普通提款权以外的一种补充，所以称为特别提款权。
特别提款权（通俗讲）：支付宝里面的金额数，当你找别人借钱人家打钱给你，你的金额数量增加，当给别人还款时，数额减少。但这些钱在没有支付宝支付的地方你用不了。必须转到银行卡里面，然后去取钱。这个数字是不能直接支付的。这个支付宝也只是货币的延伸

8. WTO与IMF、WB的区别和联系是什么

WTO： 
 世贸组织是一个独立于联合国的永久性国际组织。1995年1月1日正式开始运作，负责管理世界经济和贸易秩序，总部设在瑞士日内瓦莱蒙湖畔。1996年1月1日，它正式取代关贸总协定临时机构。世贸组织是具有法人地位的国际组织，在调解成员争端方面具有更高的权威性。它的前身是1947年订立的关税及贸易总协定。与关贸总协定相比，世贸组织涵盖货物贸易、服务贸易以及知识产权贸易，而关贸总协定只适用于商品货物贸易。世贸组织与世界银行、国际货币基金组织一起，并称为当今世界经济体制的“三大支柱”。目前，世贸组织的贸易量已占世界贸易的95％以上。

IMF：
    国际货币基金组织 (International Monetary Fund -- IMF) 是世界银行巨头们私有的欧美中央银行以及其它一些掌控了世界经济命脉的银行家们所掌握的（欧美中央银行一般是私有的，这些国际银行家们掌握了货币发行权，也就是这些政府真正的幕后之手）国际金融组织。1946年3月正式成立。1947年3月1日开始工作，1947年11月15日成为联合国的专门机构，在经营上有其独立性。总部设在华盛顿。该组织宗旨是通过一个常设机构来促进国际货币合作，为国际货币问题的磋商和协作提供方法；通过国际贸易的扩大和平衡发展，把促进和保持成员国的就业、生产资源的发展、实际收入的高水平，作为经济政策的首要目标；稳定国际汇率，在成员国之间保持有秩序的汇价安排，避免竞争性的汇价贬值；协助成员国建立经常性交易的多边支付制度，消除妨碍世界贸易的外汇管制；在有适当保证的条件下，基金组织向成员国临时提供普通资金，使其有信心利用此机会纠正国际收支的失调，而不采取危害本国或国际繁荣的措施；按照以上目的，缩短成员国国际收支不平衡的时间，减轻不平衡的程度等

WB：
WB全名为世界银行（the World Bank），原名国际复兴开发银行（the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development）。它是联合国属下的一个专门机构，负责长期货款的国际金融机构。World Bank是根据1944年美国布雷顿森林会议上通过的《国际复兴开发银行协定》成立的。其宗旨是通过对生产事业的投资，资助成员国的复兴和开发工作；通过对贷款的保证或参与贷款及其他和人投资的方式促进外国和人投资，当成员国不能在合理的条件下获得私人资本时，则在适当条件下以银行本身资金或筹集的资金及其它资金给予成员国直接贷款，来补充私人投资的不足；通过鼓励国际投资，开发成员国的生产资源，提供技术咨询和提高生产能力，以促进成员国国际贸易的均衡增长及国际收支状况的改善。 根据世界银行的宗旨，其主要业务活动是，对发展中成员国提供长期贷款对成员国政府或经政府担保的私人企业提供贷款和技术援助，资助他们兴建某些建设周期长，利润率偏低，但又为该国经济和社会发展所必需的建设项目。 世界银行与国际开发协会（International Development Association, IDA）、国际金融公司（Interational Finane Corporation,IFC）、多边投资担保机构（Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency,MIGA）、国际投资争端解决中心（Interational Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes,ICSID）五部分共同组成了世界银行集团（World bannk Group）。


区别于连系
  国际货币基金主要的角色是核数师，工作是记录各国之间的贸易数字，和各国间的债务，并主持制定国际货币经济政策。至于世界银行，则主要提供长期贷款。世银的工作类似投资银行，向公司、个人或政府发行债券，将所得款项借予受助国。
  IMF的成立目的是要稳定各国的货币，以及监察外汇市场。由于IMF不是银行，它不会放款。然而，国际货币基金有储备金，供国家借用，以在短时间内稳定货币；做法类似在往来户口中透支。所借款项必须于5年内清还。

世贸组织与世界银行、国际货币基金组织一起，并称为当今世界经济体制的“三大支柱”。